eHRAF Learning Hub
Architecture in eHRAF
The study of architecture in anthropology analyzes the built environment to understand past and present human societies. Rather than just studying static structures, anthropologists examine how physical spaces shape human behavior, reflect cultural worldviews, and evolve alongside environmental and social conditions. Use this hub to explore traditions with documents focused on architecture, related OCM subjects, and curated learning resources.
“Kukulcan Temple (El Castillo), Chichen Itza” by Mariordo (Mario Roberto Durán Ortiz), Wikimedia Commons, CC BY-SA 3.0Photo: Mariordo (Mario Roberto Durán Ortiz), CC BY-SA 3.0
Documents in eHRAF Archaeology
eHRAF Archaeology contains hundreds of documents describing archaeological traditions from around the world. The list of traditions is drawn from the Outline of Archaeological Traditions (OAT) (opens in new tab) and is then incorporated into HRAF’s Outline of World Cultures (OWC) (opens in new tab), a classification system for the world’s cultures. An archaeological tradition is a group of populations sharing similar subsistence practices, technology, and forms of socio-political organization, which are spatially contiguous over a relatively large area, and which endure temporally for a relatively long period (Peregrine 2010 (opens in new tab)).
The database includes both a simple random sample (SRS) of traditions and selected tradition sequences, organized by region, subregion, and subsistence type. eHRAF Archaeology currently contains over 110 traditions, with new documents added to the database each year.
Browsing Traditions
Traditions in the database can be found via the Browse Traditions tab. Use the A-Z Index or search for traditions by typing into the Filter Index. Traditions can also be browsed by region and by current country. Access the Tradition Profile by clicking on the tradition name. For each tradition, there is a Tradition Summary, Collection Description, and a List of Collection Documents.
Browsing Subjects
Every paragraph of text in eHRAF Archaeology has been subject-indexed by HRAF anthropologists using HRAF’s subject-classification system, the Outline of Cultural Materials (OCM) (opens in new tab). Subjects or OCMs can be found under the Browse Subjects tab. They can also be browsed using the A-Z Index or searched for by typing into the Filter Index. You may also choose to browse subjects by using the Major Subjects (hierarchy) tab or by OCM identifier. For example, Building and Construction (330) includes the narrower term Construction (331), while Structures (340) includes the narrower term Architecture (341).
Example Subject: Architecture
Using the Subjects tab, we can type “architecture” into the Search Subject Index box. If we select Architecture (341), we will find that 90 documents include Architecture in the list of main subjects covered. To be clear, this is by no means a complete list of documents that have paragraphs with information about architecture — it is simply a list of documents that include Architecture (341) as a main topic of discussion.
For example, this document by Charles Adams includes “Ceremonial Architecture” in the title and lists Architecture among the subjects covered.
Other main subjects in the article by Charles Adams:
Traditions by Region
The following 0 traditions in eHRAF Archaeology have a document focused on architecture, grouped by region.
No traditions found.
Where in the World
Geographic distribution of the archaeological traditions in eHRAF Archaeology with a document focused on architecture. Click a marker to view the tradition profile.
For example, this document (opens in new tab) by Charles Adams is focused on the Early Anasazi (NT95) tradition, which is found in southern Nevada east across southern Utah to southwestern Colorado, northern New Mexico, and northern Arizona from 1300–700 BP.
Related OCM Subjects
These subjects from the Outline of Cultural Materials (OCM) are most relevant to the study of architecture in eHRAF Archaeology — spanning Building and Construction (330), Structures (340), Equipment and Maintenance of Buildings (350), and Settlements (360).
Search Examples
Here are some examples of how to conduct eHRAF searches.
Resources
Filter by resource type, or show all at once.
- Explaining Human CultureDwellingsA comprehensive summary of cross-cultural research on dwellings from HRAF’s Explaining Human Culture project.Learn more
- ArticlesArchitecture as a Material Correlate of Mobility StrategiesMichael W. Diehl tests the hypothesis that the planned duration of use for a structure is positively associated with the investment costs in building a dwelling. Some operational hypotheses are supported; others are not.Learn more
- ArticlesClimate, Climate Change and the Global Diversity of Human HousesA macroecological study in Evolutionary Human Sciences of vernacular house architecture across 1,140 societies. Climatic drivers, cultural continuity, and inter-group borrowing predict wall materials, roof shape, and floor placement; social drivers strongly predict every feature tested.Learn more
- ArticlesTowards an Architectural AnthropologyMarie Stender explores the potential and challenges of architectural anthropology as a distinct sub-discipline — what architects can learn from anthropology and vice versa.Learn more
- ArticlesThe Neolithic Period: Triumphs of Architecture, Agriculture, and ArtEdward Bruce Banning summarizes the Neolithic period for the southern Levant from the Natufian to the Chalcolithic period, covering settlement patterns, technologies, economy, art, burial practices, and social organization.Learn more
- eHRAF WorkbookseHRAF Workbooks for ArchaeologyDesigned to complement any introductory textbook or anthropology curriculum, eHRAF Workbooks are PowerPoint slideshows that instructors can modify for their own courses.Learn more
- eHRAF WorkbooksDwellings: A Comparative ApproachA workbook comparing dwelling types and construction across cultures.Learn more
- eHRAF WorkbooksGreat Discoveries: CahokiaA workbook on the mound-building city of Cahokia.Learn more
- eHRAF WorkbooksGreat Discoveries: Pyramids of GizaA workbook on the pyramids of Giza.Learn more
- eHRAF WorkbooksGreat Discoveries: Royal Tombs of UrA workbook on the royal tombs of Ur.Learn more
- HRAF Homepage PostsHome Truths: An Anthropology of House and HomeFrancine Barone asks an easily overlooked question about shelter, dwellings, and residence patterns: when is a house a home? Is “home” recognized in the same ways around the world?Learn more
- HRAF Homepage PostsDwellings: Function, Symbolism, and LandscapeJeffrey Vadala describes how cross-cultural researchers have identified worldwide patterns in social organization and dwelling shape, size, and construction — from small windbreak shelters to enormous longhouses.Learn more
- HRAF Homepage PostsFive New Culture CollectionsMatthew Longcore features the Babylonians (MH07) collection and the spiral minaret at Samarra — according to the late K. A. C. Creswell, a leading authority on Islamic architecture, a striking example of ancient Mesopotamian influence whose spiral form later spread as far as China.Learn more
- HRAF Homepage PostsShaman Lords, Spider Diviners, and Hoards: An Archaeology of the Objects We BuryJeffrey Vadala shows how caching objects is often correlated with specific social practices, such as the construction or rebuilding of sacred architecture (Religious and Educational Structures, OCM 346), the performance of religious ceremonies (Organized Ceremonial, OCM 796), and Human Burial Practices and Funerals (OCM 764).Learn more
- HRAF Homepage PostsFeatured Culture: Aztecs, Cosmology, and Ancient Rituals in eHRAFFrancine Barone explores the cosmology and ancient rituals of the Aztecs, whose elaborate architecture, art, codices, laws, and religion survive in the form of stone artifacts.Learn more
- HRAF Homepage PostseHRAF Archaeology: Inka of PeruChristiane Cunnar provides an overview of the Inka (SE80) tradition of modern-day Peru, known for its megalithic architecture and fine-cut stone masonry.Learn more
- HRAF Homepage PostsOlmec in eHRAF ArchaeologyChristiane Cunnar provides an overview of the Olmec (NU95) tradition of modern-day Mexico, distinguished by monumental stone sculpture, large-scale public architecture, and probable numerical, calendar, and writing systems.Learn more
- HRAF Homepage PostsThe Mesoamerican Origins of ChocolateMatthew Longcore examines the Mesoamerican origins of chocolate among the Olmec, whose pyramids and earth-and-clay mounds formed the basis for massive ceremonial centers.Learn more
- HRAF Homepage PostsTracking the Heavens: The Practical Utility of Astronomy in Cross-Cultural ContextsJeffrey Vadala describes how archaeologists look for evidence of astronomical observation in architectural ruins, codices, glyphs, artifacts, and stone alignments.Learn more
- BooksMaking: Anthropology, Archaeology, Art and ArchitectureTim Ingold ties the four disciplines together as ways of making, proposing an anthropology and archaeology not of but with art and architecture (London: Routledge, 2013). See also Victor Buchli, An Anthropology of Architecture (London: Bloomsbury, 2013), and Albena Yaneva, Mapping Controversies in Architecture (Farnham: Ashgate, 2012).Learn more
- BooksAnthropology for Architects: Social Relations and the Built EnvironmentWhat can architects learn from anthropologists? This is the central question examined in Anthropology for Architects – a survey and exploration of the ideas which underpin the correspondence between contemporary social anthropology and architecture.Learn more
- Professional OrganizationsSociety for American Archaeology (SAA)“Archaeology is the study of the ancient and recent human past through material remains” — including buildings, from million-year-old fossils of our earliest human ancestors in Africa to 20th-century structures in present-day New York City.Learn more
- Professional OrganizationsSociety of Architectural Historians (SAH)The Society of Architectural Historians promotes the study, interpretation, and conservation of architecture, design, landscapes, and urbanism worldwide for the benefit of all.Learn more
Research Hypothesis Explorer
Select a supported hypothesis to learn more about the research in Explaining Human Culture.
No hypotheses found.
Cross-Cultural Research Strategies
Suggested tips for conducting your own eHRAF Archaeology cross-cultural research project on architecture.
How do I find out if eHRAF Archaeology contains information relevant to my main topic of interest?
You will want to try to find relevant subjects for a search. Try Browse Subjects and enter a variety of keywords to find relevant subjects (or use the Subject box in Advanced Search). Read subject definitions and look for related subjects or broader or narrower categories. Alternatively, try keywords in Advanced Search (opens in new tab) and read sample paragraphs to see what subjects were used for the paragraph.
How much information about architecture can we find in eHRAF Archaeology?
The study of architecture is vast, ranging from the dwellings of everyday people to monumental structures like pyramids and ziggurats. Selecting the type of building that you would like to research is a good starting point for a comparative study of architecture. For example, pyramids can be found in ancient Egypt, ancient Mesoamerica, and in the Andean region of South America. Keep in mind that although some specific words are usually used for specific types of architecture, such as pyramids, other types of large structures have so many word choices that it is usually better to search by a broader subject such as Public Structures, Miscellaneous Structures, or Religious and Educational Structures. For residential structures, the subject Dwellings includes all types of residential living spaces, including caves.
Which archaeological traditions are covered in eHRAF Archaeology?
In the eHRAF Archaeology database, traditions are organized by region (e.g. North America), subregion (e.g. Southwest) and subsistence type (e.g. hunter-gatherers). HRAF analysts add new information to eHRAF Archaeology regularly. The table of Traditions Covered (opens in new tab) gives an overview of the types of traditions currently included and can be sorted by culture name, region, subregions, subsistence and sample types. You can also use Browse Traditions (opens in new tab) to search the A-Z list or a map view. All collected, analyzed, and indexed archaeological documents (e.g., books, journal articles, monographs) for a tradition can be found in the Collection Documents tab. In Browse Traditions, there are a variety of filters including region, subsistence type, or a sample such as the Simple Random Sample (SRS); filters can also be applied after a search is conducted.
What is the Outline of Archaeological Traditions (OAT)?
The Outline of Archaeological Traditions (OAT), compiled by Peter Peregrine with the help of a Board of Advisors, is the sampling frame for eHRAF Archaeology. Only some of these traditions are currently included (see traditions covered (opens in new tab)). HRAF has employed two types of sampling: a simple random sample from the OAT, which can be used for testing broad hypotheses about universality and diversity, and selected sequences of archaeological traditions.
Can eHRAF World Cultures be used for archaeological research topics?
Using eHRAF World Cultures in conjunction with eHRAF Archaeology can help elucidate comparisons. For example, in the Dwellings (opens in new tab) module there are examples of findings from the ethnographic record that might apply to the archaeological record: if rectangular dwellings are associated with higher societal complexity, perhaps tradition sequences in eHRAF Archaeology can be examined to see if curvilinear houses precede rectangular buildings and what other changes occur at the same time.